(23) Mental Health and Well-Being in Schools

Running Head: Mental Health and Well-Being in Schools 1

Mental Health and Well-Being in Schools

Perrin J Perez

California State University Long Beach

MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 2

Abstract

Recent neurological findings confirm that the youth’s brain is not like adults (e.g., logical thinking, self-regulation), which is very susceptible to emotion and being accepted or not. This period being the most crucial time of brain development in a person’s life reinforces the need the for preventive measures and rehabilitation in development. What negatively afflicts youth today or what helps them to grow more positively may best be understood by examining current trends, and how structured systems and policies that are in place affect some groups more than others. Studies show that zero tolerance policies have affected colored youth at a disproportionately level. They have received more school suspensions for lesser offenses, these offenses lead to dropout, and dropout often leads to juvenile delinquency; school-to-prison pipeline (STTP). School failure and the STTP- exclusionary practices may be used to push some people out. Often social control advocates push for some over others, conversely labeling individuals by use of a social construct may be prose for some. The high outcomes of disproportion, dropping out and high incarceration rates for colored youth are leaving many in quite a quandary. Adverse childhood experiences (ACE’s) measure factors of stress and trauma, and find these factors are dose dependent and impact the same brain regions that are still under development in adolescence. These brain regions impact the ability to reason, rationalize emotion, and folks from a lower socio-economic status are susceptible to high ACE’s. A spurious relationship ACE/ behavior problem leads to suspension to dropout then juvenile delinquency. A school disengagement early warning system is suggested one that uses a student’s school records to locate learning or behavioral problems. ACE testing may be used to pinpoint stress or trauma area’s so that a rehabilitative approach may be taken to prevent behavioral problems that lead to STTP and juvenile delinquency.

MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 3 . Introduction . Overrepresentation of racially and ethnically diverse youth in the juvenile justice system (JJS) and underrepresentation in referrals for mental health treatment are serious issues that warrant further investigation (Dalton, 2009). The JJS was founded on the idea that adolescence and young adults need time and a healthy environment for development. Recent neurological findings reveal that the youth’s brain is not like adults (e.g., logical thinking, self-regulation) brain, and that they are very susceptible to emotion and being accepted by others or not. Preventive measures of what negatively afflicts them or what helps them to grow more positively may best be understood by examining any if any disparities in racial-ethnic relationships exist. For example, structured systems and policies that are in place that affect some groups more than others. This study is important because colored youth have experienced school failure at a higher rate than whites or Hispanics in correlation to school dropout and offending. Studies show that policies in place (e.g., zero tolerance policies) have affected colored youth disproportionately leading them to juvenile delinquency as they may be pushed out of school and become susceptible to the school-to-prison pipeline (STTP). The added strain that school discipline is placing upon these students may be the cumulative interaction that has accumulated due to a label (e.g., deviant), and may be acting as the straw that breaks the camel’s back. Wolff, Baglivio (2017) examine juvenile recidivism by the degree of childhood maltreatment suggesting that negative emotion is like the general strain theory (GST), and that adverse childhood experience (ACE) scores can capture individual processes of trauma and stress before delinquent activity occurs. Understanding and revealing any underlying causal mechanisms to the behaviors that contribute to these disparities from a micro and macro perspective is important. This paper

MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 4 reviews five research articles to seek meaning of racial-ethnic disparities related to school failure, labeling theory, and adolescent brain development through a rehabilitative lens to identify variables that contribute to juvenile delinquency or not. . Literature Review Hemez, Brent, and Mowen (2020) examine how the school- to- prison pipeline (STPP) and school suspensions often lead to a student dropping out, which increases the odds of imprisonment in young adulthood. The study examined the relationship between school suspensions in adolescence and incarceration during young adulthood. Hemez et al. (2020) found a significant positive relationship between school suspension experience and incarceration between the ages of 18 and 26. The researchers suggest that suspensions act as a turning point in a student’s life, resulting in negative outcomes (e.g., pro vs. antisocial behavior) as they transition into adulthood. The use of zero tolerance policies have led to an increase in school suspensions, which seems to create a cumulative punishment effect especially the on-minority students. For example, interactional continuity is repeated provoking actions, and the disadvantage comes from the cumulative effect of these negative events. Hemez et al. (2020) revealed those who fail to graduate high school are at a much greater risk, because 60 plus percent of incarcerated individuals do not have a high school diploma. Next will look at labeling theory and the impact of (STPP) on negative life outcomes through an ethno-racial lens. The aim of Pesta (2018) was to examine the negative effect of labeling for those that may have had a discriminatory experience in the correctional stage based on race. Looking for interaction through the lens of race and ethnicity is important, because the overrepresentation of black students is vastly disproportionate to white students regarding school discipline. One group

MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 5 that of colored youth are experiencing the STPP and high incarceration rates. Studies are limited that examine ethno- racial groups in relation to discipline, however a causal mechanism to criminal offending behavior beyond that of school suspensions may be better understood through the outcomes of this literature. The STPP construct purports that exclusionary discipline enacts a series of events that stigmatizes and pushes students out of school and into the JJS (Pesta, 2018). Pesta (2018) reveals a direct link was found from exclusion (e.g., school suspension) to criminal offending, and from dropout to offending in black students. In contrast, dropout did not lead to criminal offending in either Hispanics or white students. This direct effect is a key finding from Pesta 2018 that suggests for Blacks, the effect of being labeled in adolescence may have a strong influence on criminal outcomes in adulthood. The findings imply there may be some other factor that leads to adult criminality after dropping out of school, for example, discrimination or from of being stigmatized (e.g., labeled) as deviant in their youth. Heilbrun, Cornell, and Lovegrove (2015) examine these school disciplinary practices through the lens of the disparities of race and the principal's attitude. Recognizing the philosophy that a school principal practice’s whether an exclusionary or preventive approach to discipline correlated to how many and what kind of suspensions each one gives may offer insight into understanding the differences in these racial- ethnic disparities. Heilbrun et al. (2015) revealed the rates of suspension of black students is twice the rate of white students in the Virginia high school system, and the disproportion does not stop here. The organizational structure of rule orientation is mediated by the officials in charge, and Heilbrun et al. 2015 indicates that teachers that support zero tolerance policies gave more suspensions than the principal's that practiced discipline through a more preventive Len’s. White students were suspend for drug

MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 6 offenses, while the majority of colored students were suspended for soft offenses like disrupting class. Suspension rates are associated with high dropout rates, and black students are suspended at twice the rate as white students (Heilbrun et al. 2015). The disproportionate numbers between race and ethnicity in this study match that of other states. If dropping out of high school is the turning point toward an outcome of juvenile delinquency, and recidivism, then what other variables account for a colored youth’s vulnerability to STTP, which leads to their incarceration at such a higher rate than that of hispanic’s or whites? Wolff, Baglivio (2017) explores the association between ACE’s, negative emotion (NE) and juvenile recidivism. The study follows 27.200 juvenile offenders who have completed a community-based sanctions with a one-year follow-up. People with high ACE scores experience trauma and stress in their home and societal environment, and at the extent that these experiences accumulate have a cumulative effect on the same brain regions that recent neurological findings implicate are underdeveloped due to the stage of an adolescent and young adult. Wolff, Baglivio (2017) highlight that NE and ACE score’s are very similar to Robert Agnews general strain theory. It is not difficult to see in these findings in relation to STPP that many colored have accumulated strain/NE from internalizing a label and interactional continuity of not living up to a system which does not accept them equally. Wolff, Baglivio (2017) revealed that 41% of juveniles in this study were re-arrested within 1 year of completing the FDJJ community-based sanction. This is significant that zero tolerance policies and those that penalize these individuals may be overlooking or missing an underlying component of behavior. If the individual is punished for a symptom and the problem is misunderstood nor treated, then the symptom may only become worse by punishing them. Under these pretenses it seems that rehabilitation is not

MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 7 serving its purpose. The next study references a preventive measure in the form of an early warning system to detect any troubled behavior through a student's school records. Henry, Knight, and Thornberry (2012) examine the effects of an early warning school disengagement system as a predictor of dropout. In the effort to prevent delinquency this system would follow students school records to detect grades and/or behavioral issues during middle adolescence, late adolescence, and early adulthood. These interventions are important because most underlying causal mechanisms of a symptom show up through learning disabilities and/or acting out behaviorally. These symptoms are relevant to ACE scores, child maltreatment, and early childhood trauma. Henry et al. (2012) reveals that school disengagement is a predictor of dropping out of high school, and serious problem behaviors. The early warning system is important because it is individual specific and may prevent students from going down the STPP. . Analysis School failure has a direct relationship to delinquency. Hemez et al. (2020) detail the need for educational practitioners to emphasize rethinking disciplinary policies that promote prosocial behavior for all their students at this important developmental period as they are transitioning into adulthood. For example, to reconsider policies (e.g., zero tolerance) that can be used as a tool for social control, which cause racial disparities and promote a cumulative disadvantage for some students. The STTP is a phenomenon that acts as a negative turning point in a colored youths life course, and evokes antisocial behavior, juvenile delinquency, and adult criminality. Evidence suggests that zero tolerance policies are exclusionary in nature, which often neglect individual specific circumstance in favor of disciplinary practices that are too harsh and unfair. The policies have led to counterproductive aspects in the educational experience as

MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 8 Hemez et al. 2020 points out delays in graduation, greater levels of grade retention, missed instructional time, higher dropout rates, and juvenile delinquency. It seems that once a youth received one school detention more bad behaviors were to follow, which concurs that punitive punishment in schools that lead to the STTP instigate further offending and higher possibility of criminality and justice system involvement instead of preventing delinquency. The current discipline used in schools seems exclusionary and are causing more harm than good, because some students that are pushed out of school have higher odds of becoming involved in the JJS. Revealing factors relevant to this turning point in a colored youths’ life that instigate antisocial behavior is important. For example, unveiling an underlying causal mechanism that leads to a juvenile becoming delinquent or not. There is still no clear answer that explains the disproportion of behavior to suspension based on ethnicity to distinguish the role that unequal treatment or stigma plays on exclusionary school discipline. The fact that Racial and ethnicities differ in the relationship of dropping out, and that Hispanics do not engage in criminal offending, while black students do engage in crime after dropping out indicates something intriguing is happening at the individual level. The labeling theory may offer insight into why blacks experience the STPP differently, and at such a higher rate than other ethnicities do. The overrepresentation of blacks in the JJS is like a principal that has a biased perception based on stigma, but this attitude may be reciprocal from someone that is being stigmatized. Pesta (2018) suggests that the two direct pathways from exclusionary school discipline and dropping out to criminal offending may be partially due to the stigma of being labeled deviant or felon in their adolescence. The cumulative disadvantage of being stigmatized is a form of primary deviance, and if internalized secondary deviance may result. Trying to resist

MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 9 a label in a hyper security setting while one is seen as deviant is a test of one’s coping ability (e.g., cognitive, emotional), and if the cumulative interaction becomes too great then one may act out behaviorally. Remembering that the adolescents brain struggles with rational thinking, and if scolded to harshly then the deviant identity may become their master status. The Subcultural Theory of Delinquency may explain this strain as a reaction formation where antisocial tendencies become very negative towards the middle class. Once cumulative disadvantage sets in as deviant as a master status then juvenile delinquency is sure to follow. Dobbs (2010) reveals that our brains react to social exclusion as a threat to our existence. The principals/teachers are involved in the interactions with students and make the decisions on taking a stern approach of the use of zero tolerance policies or not. Heilbrun et al. (2105) reveals differences of a principle’s philosophy of exclusionary or preventive discipline is indicative of how many suspensions they hand out or not. The more important finding in this study is that colored students received suspensions at over twice the rate of suspensions that the white students received. The thing is the white student’s offenses where for alcohol & drugs a heavier zero tolerance offense, while the colored youth were suspended for soft offenses like disrupting class. This exemplifies harsher disciplinary action for softer offenses. Although, the higher number of incidents indicate more occurrence, which deems that even though these are softer behaviors, because they are occurring at a higher rate cites that these behaviors are more of a nuisance. This behavior is more of a symptom of an underlying causal mechanism and punishing for this is going to be like adding more strain to the pain of stigma or shame, which exacerbate delinquent behaviors. Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) are assessments that measure trauma, stress, and are dose dependent and accumulate strain like the general strain theory. MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 10 Wolff, Baglivio (2017) correlate negative emotion (NE) to general strain theory, and that an indirect effect of ACEs on NE can lead to recidivism. General Strain Theory and race can account for neighborhood strains, unfair discipline, discrimination, and victimization, and these are like the factors that ACE testing uses to check individuals for toxic stress and trauma. This is very important, although it is true that not all disciplinarians abuse zero tolerance policies. These studies which are consistent with promoting a rehabilitative approach would yield to those who do abuse zero tolerance policies that they are doing more harm than good. These policies do not account for individuality and now where adolescents and young adults are concerned brain development must be considered. Heilbrun et al. (2015) reveals the STTP enacts a series of events that stigmatize and pushes people out of school into the JJS. Black students are suspended at a higher rate than white students, but do not commit aggressive offenses at higher rates than white students. Researchers have had a difficult time explaining the source of these disparities. Seems like ACEs/strain may be the underlying causal mechanism (e.g., latent factor) of disparity, and the spurious relationship associated with the stigma of colored youth going down the path of the STTP or not. Students with 4 or more ace scores are 32 % more likely to experience behavior and learning disabilities (Burke, 2018). Therefore, preventing behavioral issues from escalating by putting an early warning school disengagement system into effect would be a beneficial preventive measure. Along with ACE testing to pinpoint areas of suffering for those students with preexisting stress and trauma issues. This allows for individual specific intervention that would be most effective at preventing delinquency, in contrast to harsh disciplinary practices backed by zero tolerance policies that only seem to exacerbate and add to the stress and pressures of

MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 11 adolescent and young adult development. A positive environment for learning is essential and at-risk students that have experienced trauma, strain, or stress need rehabilitation to help with a exacerbated compromised adolescent/young adult neurological state. Increasing resilience and coping skills to better rationalize difficult and stigmatizing conditions that these students will experience and come across is of key importance. Early prevention in the form of early warning system and ACE score testing combined with several rehabilitative therapeutic approaches are suggested at best for preventing recidivism. Furthermore, Functional Family therapy models FFT, MST, or MTFC combined with evidenced based practices may be most effective (e.g., Models for Change Program) at preventing adverse behaviors that lead to juvenile delinquency.

References

Burke, D. N. (2018). The science of ACEs is fundamentally hopeful. ACE-Nation Aware Conference. Scottland: You Tube.

Dalton, R. F. (2009). Race Differences in Mental Health Service Access in a Male Juvenile Justice Facility. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 48(3), 194-209.

Dobbs, D. (2011). Beautiful Brains: Scientific discoveries about adolescent brain development. Brain Cognition.

Heilbrun, A. C. (2015). Principals Attitudes Regarding Zero tolerance and Racial Disparities in School Suspensions. Psychology in Schools, 52(5).

Hemez, P. B. (2020). Exploring the School-to-Prison Pipeline: How School Suspensions Influence Incarceration During Youn Adulthood. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 18(3), 235-255.

Henry, H. I. (2012). School disengagement as a predictor of dropout, delinquency, and problem substance use during adolescence and early adulthood. Youth Adolescence, 41, 156-166. doi:10.10077/s10964-011-9665-3

Pesta, R. (2018). Labeling and the Differential Impact of School Discipline on Negative Life Outcomes: Assessing Ethno-Racial Variation in the School-to-Prison Pipeline. Crime & Delinquency, 64(11), 1489-1512.

Wolff, K. T. (2017). Adverse childhood experiences, negative